Description of LGBTQ+ cultures in different regions of the world
Precolonial Asia
“The strict Victorian-era laws brought in by British colonists often clashed with decades, or even centuries of complex local cultural attitudes to sexuality. India, in particular, had traditionally maintained a flexible, non-prescriptive view of sexuality and gender roles. But the British administrators paid little attention to local attitudes when they criminalized same-sex relations in 1860 and declared the country's centuries-old old custom of transgender hjiras to be ‘unnatural.’"
India was in fact one of the first colonies to outlaw LGBT sexual relations under British imposed legislation. Han, the University of Hong Kong professor, told CNN the Indian laws were then used as a "template" for other colonies.
Indian LGBT activist Dhrubo Jyoti, who helped lead the campaign for the decriminalization of gay sex in India, told CNN that same-sex communities loathed the law not just because it was "wrong," but also because it was "alien." "This law was not ours. This was not a law that has organically developed in our society," said Jyoti. Jyoti pointed out that the law didn't only trap members of the LGBT community in the closet, “it also invited other forms of discrimination, providing a cover for blackmail and harassment, and even sexual assault.”
Section 377, a British colonial-era law prohibiting "unnatural acts," was only annulled in India in 2018. Source.
Bali – “Moreover, the scriptures of Hinduism, the religion of most Balinese, don’t contain condemnation of LGBT people as the Bible or the Islamic Hadiths do. Hindu sacred texts never hold LGBT people to be inferior to their heterosexual counterparts. Hindu mythology itself contains allusions to LGBT figures playing crucial parts in time-honored sacred narratives. To name one, Shikhandi, who was key to ensuring the victory of the Pandavas in the Kurukshetra War of the Mahabharata was, succinctly put, a man trapped in a woman’s body. Despite this, Shri Krishna, the protector god Vishnu incarnate, didn’t mind sharing a chariot with the transgender warrior. One of the ultimate forms of the divine in Hinduism is Ardhanarishvara, considered the apex of masculine and feminine balance, portrayed as a half-man-and-half-woman deity. Other Hindu deities were never known to shirk from sex changes, either: Shiva once turned into a milkmaid after bathing in the Yamuna River, Vishnu assumed his female form Mohini to marry Arjun’s son Aravan and in this form even bore Shiva a son, the god Maha-sastha. In another famous Hindu epic, Ramayana, we also read about the two women who make love to procreate without the aid of men. Indian historian Manu Bhagavan argues that India’s current rigid sexual mores were inherited from the British who outlawed homosexual acts throughout their empire. Indian mythologist Devdutt Pattanaik agrees with this analysis: “The British reinforced this view by creating the ‘sodomy’ law, referring to the biblical city of Sodom that was destroyed by God as it was rife with sexual deviations. Subjects of the British empire, Hindus included, were keen to distance themselves from all such things vile; they were determined to prove themselves pure, even if it meant wiping out or denying their own legacy.’” Source.
China – One of the Eight Immortals in the Taoist pantheon, Lan Caihe, is depicted as a sexually ambiguous being. During the Qing Dynasty in 17th century, a cult of the Rabbit Lord, or Tu’er Shen, was born. Tu’er Shen was worshipped as the deity responsible for regulating the sexual relationships between men. It became popular enough that the Confucian scholars at the Qing court tried to suppress it. Source.
Indonesia – “The explicit claim that homosexuality is somehow alien to Indonesian culture, however, may be at great odds with historical records. Widely regarded as the Javanese Kama Sutra, Serat Centhini—commissioned and partially written in the early 1800s by the crown prince of the Mataram Surakarta Kingdom, who would later become Solo’s sovereign Pakubuwana V—details sex between men (gemblak) in Ponorogo, and the existence of warok (butch gay men) and jathil (effeminate gay men) in the East Javanese town.
Serat Centhini was an official royal court publication, a 12-volume compendium on sexuality compiled by members of the royal family and court poets. Though homosexuality was by no means described as a widespread practice, it was neither seen as an offence nor a threat to society. Other ethnic groups inhabiting the Indonesian archipelago in the past also dealt with sexuality in surprisingly tolerant ways. The Bugis people of South Sulawesi, for instance, recognize five genders: makkunrai (cisgender female), oroané (cisgender male), bissu (androgynous), calabai (transgender male) and calalai (transgender female). The bissu, now almost extinct, were seen to both encompass and transcend all other gender types and were therefore highly respected. For the old Bugis, the bissu acted as wise beings or shamans, to be consulted on cultural and societal matters.” Source.
Japan – (Samurai, Shudo, joro &wakashu) Source (Male Colors: Construction of Homosexuality in Tokugawa, Japan By Gary Leupp) & Source
“Of the 71 countries around the world in which same-sex sexual relations are illegal, it's no coincidence that more than half are former British colonies or protectorates, according to research provided by the International LGBTI Association. In most of these countries, legislation outlawing consensual gay sex was inherited from British rule and left in place following independence.” “Across the world, from South America to Asia, an estimated 49 formerly British-administered countries continue to criminalize homosexuality. Out of those, 31 still have laws based on the original colonial anti-LGBT legislation, according to Lucas Mendos, co-author of the 2017 ILGA "State-Sponsored Homophobia." This includes countries as diverse as Malaysia, Pakistan and Uganda.” “An alternative explanation would be that conservative attitudes found in former colonies are illustrative of the long term effects of British prohibitions on local opinions. According to Han, once a law is in place, it's difficult to dislodge, both from a legal and physiological perspective. "The law book says it's illegal so that means that it has this general societal inference, changing the social normative views of gay sex," said Han. ” Source.
Pre-colonial Africa
“Many traditional African languages have very old words for gender variation and same-sex relations. More than two thousand years ago in what is now Zimbabwe, San Bushmen painted rocks with images of sexual congress between men. The Elizabethan traveler Andrew Battell, who lived among the Imbangala in what is now Angola, reported that the Imbangala ‘are beastly in their living, for they have men in women’s apparel, whom they keep among their wives’. Battell also made mention of ‘women witches … [who] use unlawful lusts between themselves in mutual filthiness’. In the late 19th century, under the influence of British missionaries, some of the male pages in the court of King Mwanga II of Buganda (Uganda) converted to Christianity. Mwanga II had 16 wives, but when the pages began to refuse him sexual favors, he had them burnt at the stake for their impudence. These are just a few among countless examples of culturally sanctioned ‘homosexual’ practices in Africa. Today, “homosexuality” (which being bisexual+ and transgender are understood as) remains illegal in many African countries, in some cases punishable with life imprisonment or even death.” Source
Burundi – Homosexuality was documented in the Buganda royal
court. Source (See John Osogo Ambani, A Triple Heritage of Sexuality? Regulation of Sexual Orientation in Africa in Historical Perspective, in PROTECTING THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF SEXUAL MINORITIES IN CONTEMPORARY AFRICA 14, 21 (Sylvie Namwase & Adrian Jjuuko eds., 2017) (collecting accounts); Lydia Boyd, The Problem with Freedom: Homosexuality and Human Rights in Uganda)
Egypt – Talmudic literature describes ancient Egyptians as living liberal sexual lifestyles that included women practicing polyandry and bisexuality.
The Maale of Southern Ethiopia have records of a small minority of men taking on roles that were typically reserved for women. They were called Ashtime and dressed in ways typically reserved for women, performed tasks typically performed by women, cared for their own houses, and apparently had sexual relations with men.
Kenya – There was a religious leadership role called Mugawe among the Meru people. They typically wore clothes typically made for women and rocked feminine hairstyles. Mugawe are frequently gay and are sometimes married to a man. Homoerotic bachelors were reported to have lived among the pastoralist Nandi and Maragoli.
Nigeria – “In considering Nigeria, a distinction is necessary. Prior to the arrival of European colonists, Nigeria had two legal systems: customary law and Islamic law. Though European colonists classified both systems of law as customary law, Islamic Law does not qualify as customary law because it was imported into Nigeria in the 15th Century and it is codified. This section will only examine indigenous customary law in precolonial Nigeria. However, Professor Olusola Ajaibade also indicated that pre-colonial Yoruba communities abhorred such practices. Specifically, he cites oral literature that depicts same-sex practices as ‘harmful not only to those that engage in these acts, but also to the society as a whole.’ Perhaps one exception to the conclusion that pre-colonial Nigerian customary law was enforced against sexual minorities may be woman-to woman marriages — a customary staple in several Nigerian cultural
groups, particularly the Igbo. Debates abound as to whether such ‘marriages’ qualify as queer, but for the purposes of this Note they will be classified as such. The practice included occasions where a woman would ‘assume a social function of a husband to another woman.’ But it primarily occurred where a woman with reproductive difficulties married another younger woman, who would then bear children with the first woman’s husband. The marriage between the women was viewed as valid under customary law, with the ‘husband’ paying the traditional bride price. The children produced from such unions were considered the children of the first woman— in-line for inheritance purposes. Despite the popularity of woman-to-woman marriages, Nigerian customary homosexuality laws may still be classified as spoken and enforced law because of the overwhelming evidence of customary law condemning sexual minorities, and the veil of heterosexuality— and thus legitimacy— that cloaked woman-to-woman marriages.”
In traditional Nigerian spirituality, ancestors and the Orisha (gods) were central. There was acceptance of LGBTQ+ people from ancestors and the Orisha. Spirits don’t concern themselves with bigotry, humans do. There were/are a timeline of LGBTQ+ ancestors who had similar experiences but nonetheless, the purpose of ancestors and the Orisha was connection and reaching your highest good. Sango is the Orisha of male vitality and masculinity and has always been sculpted with breasts. Sango is also described as being very androgynous, having hairstyles that were typically for women, painting his face (makeup) and has even been referred to as a “cross dresser.” Erinle is a hunter Orisha and water spirit that moves fluidly between the elements of earth and water thus he has the ability to shift his form with ease. He is also sculpted with breasts and known as the guardian of LGBTQ+ people. Obatala and Olokun are also fluid. Source: Ehimeora
South Africa – “Pre-colonial Zulu rebel Nongoloza Mathebula ordered his troops to resist sexual relations with women, and “instead, the older men of marriageable status within the regiment— the ikhela— were to take younger male initiates— the abafana— and keep them as izinkotchane, ‘boy wives.’” Source.
Uganda – “One early colonial account, described “effeminate” men within the Uganda tribe in southern Uganda, as well as observed pederasty. While a minority of scholars suggest that ‘homosexual practices were neither fully condoned nor totally suppressed,’ several sources suggest that pre-colonial customary laws in Uganda explicitly condemned indigenous homosexualities.” Source.
Zimbabwe – “The demarcation of law as silent, and therefore less able to deter indigenous sexual minorities, is exemplified in pre-colonial Zimbabwe. Prior to colonialism, as with most other African nations, the majority of Zimbabwean communities relied on oral customary laws. Because precolonial Zimbabwean customary laws were silent on homosexuality, indigenous homosexualities flourished. Within the Zimbabwean Bushman community for example, a culture of silence prevented open discussion of any sexual practices, much less the sexual practices of sexual minorities. Whilst queer indigenous practices were widely referenced in pre-colonial Zimbabwean Bushman artwork, some indigenous Bushman languages had no terms to describe homosexuality. Presumably, if a community has no terms for sexual minorities or same-sex practices, they can be neither condemned nor praised. Consequently, the absence of terms to describe homosexuality within the Bushman community indicates silence, tolerance, and even suggests ‘social acceptance.’” Source.
European Christian missionaries enforced the first anti-sodomy laws in the 19th century and shortly after things shifted dramatically.
Source. Comic Source. Psychology Today Source.
Native Americans + First Nations
With genocide and indoctrination came the erasure of and demonization of Two-Spirit/LGBTQ+ identities, traditions, contributions, and history. Even the term two-spirit is an English gloss over of a more complicated set of identities that vary from tribe to tribe. Source (Victor Raymond ph.d. With My Feet in Several Worlds Recognize: The Voices of Bisexual Men) It connotes an umbrella term indexing various Indigenous gender identities in North America. Source
As early as 1513 Spanish conquistadors committed gruesome torture and then murder of 40 Two-Spirit people, which set a precedent. European settlers committed genocide in a variety of ways from chemically to over hunting in order to produce starvation to hunting Indigenous people for sport with a bounty attached, etc. Surviving Indigenous people were legally mandated to send their children to assimilation boarding schools where they’d be indoctrinated into the ways of white supremacy via Catholicism/Christianity beginning in the late 19th century (1860) and not until the passing of the Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978 did Native American parents gain the legal right to deny their children’s placement in off-reservation schools. Source.
Ancient Greece
There is a significant amount of representation of LGBTQ+ individuals in Ancient Greece mythos and society that’s been preserved. There is much contention over whether it was actually the paradise free of moral censure thinkers like Oscar Wilde painted them as due to laws that didn’t allow women to vote, enslaved people were routinely sexually exploited, same-sex partnerships were highly regulated (older men pursued younger boys producing an inherent power imbalance, etc.), same-sex relationships between women are often erased or suppressed with most of what can be acknowledged being works from poet Sappho whose own work revolved melancholy over rejection and unrequited love due to forced marriages. There was also the cultural norm of shame and danger associated with Eros (love of the body and sexual desire), not to mention most of the same-sex relations in the mythos end in tragedy. Source. Eros source.
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